2023-01-26
EMCCD Photon Counting

EMCCD Photon Counting

EMCCD Photon Counting

PHOTON COUNTING IMAGING BASICS

Photon Counting is an acquisition mode suited for extreme faint-flux imaging. Taking full advantage of the E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣’s unique sensitivity, p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ allows to image signals down to a scarce few photons per hour with a single-photon resolution power and a wide field of view.

When signals are under 1 photon/pixel/frame, p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ is the best option available and has the potential to significantly improve acquisitions, all with remarkable ease of use.

EMCCD Photon Counting
Signal to noise ratio (SNR) of EMCCD acquisition modes. The linear acquisitions use 1 image/sec and photon counting (PC) acquisitions use 10 images/sec.

PHOTON COUNTING IMAGING BENEFITS

  • INCREASED SENSITIVITY

    Chief among the reasons to use p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ (PC) is its increased sensitivity compared to typical linear E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ acquisitions (l⁣i⁣n⁣e⁣a⁣r⁣ ⁣m⁣o⁣d⁣e⁣ – LM). All imaging technologies using gain (e.g. avalanche diodes, E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ detectors) suffer from what is called the excess noise factor (E⁣N⁣F⁣). Gain is a stochastic process and electrons have a certain probability to be multiplied at each stage of the multiplication register so even for a set gain, there is a pixel by pixel uncertainty on the exact number of electrons at the output of multiplication. The E⁣N⁣F⁣ is a representation of this phenomenon and has the same effect on the signal-to-noise ratio (S⁣N⁣R⁣) as dividing your camera’s quantum efficiency in half. More details on this subject are available in E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ noise sources.

    Using p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ eliminates the effect of E⁣N⁣F⁣; the same impact as multiplying your signal two-fold. This increased sensitivity makes a crucial difference when imaging low signal levels.

    It can be observed that the benefits of p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ do not extend beyond a signal of 1 photon/pixel/frame. That is because p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ produces binary images, with each pixel either being a 0, where no photon was detected, and 1, where a photon was detected. As such, if a pixel receives more than 1 photon, this information is not registered by the image which results in a coincidence loss.

  • ADDED FLEXIBLITY
    Effect of image stacking

    Effect of image stacking

    While a single p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ image is binary, multiple images can be stacked to produce an easy-to-interpret final image with a dynamic range. By balancing the sampling rate and the number of images stacked, an acquisition can be tailored to specific needs. This is where Nüvü Camēras’ E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣s⁣ performance levels are crucial because each image stacked adds its own noise, making low clock-induced charges (C⁣I⁣C⁣) a priority.

    Another advantage of p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ is the possibility of over-sampling. In all acquisitions with long exposure times, the risk of a high energy particle (also known as cosmic ray) hitting the detector increases. This particle deposits a high amount of energy on the detector, generating a considerable number of electrons and compromising the accuracy of an image sometimes acquired over several minutes. With p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣, the use of several shorter exposures over this longer period allows the easy removal of frames affected by a high energy particle.

THRESHOLDING TECHNIQUE

To achieve unique low-light imaging performances, p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ relies on a technique called thresholding. A straightforward way to illustrate thresholding is to take a look at histograms of E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ images.

Histograms are a way of representing images that identify the number of pixels (counts) with a certain value in ADUs (the units of intensity in an E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ image). When looking at ⁣d⁣a⁣r⁣k⁣ ⁣f⁣r⁣a⁣m⁣e⁣s⁣, images without signal, the histogram reveals a wealth of information regarding the noise sources of the camera.

IMPACT OF NOISE SOURCES

On C⁣C⁣D⁣ ⁣d⁣a⁣r⁣k⁣ ⁣f⁣r⁣a⁣m⁣e⁣s⁣ the histogram will have the look of a Gaussian distribution. When no E⁣M⁣ ⁣G⁣a⁣i⁣n⁣ is used, E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣s⁣ obtain a similar result; the readout noise dominates.

Readout noise occurs when the photo-electrons on the sensor are converted to an analog signal that can be interpreted by the camera’s electronics. As readout noise is sensor-dependent, it will not change between manufacturers and cannot be lowered unless lower readout speeds are used.

 

EMCCD Photon Counting
Readout noise histogram

With low signal in regular C⁣C⁣D⁣s⁣, only a few p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣e⁣l⁣e⁣c⁣t⁣r⁣o⁣n⁣s⁣ are generated and so the signal will be of low intensity on the histogram. If this signal intensity is too low and falls in the same range as the readout noise, there is no way to distinguish between noise and signal, leading to inconclusive results.

EMCCD Photon Counting
CCD acquisition histogram

By using E⁣M⁣ ⁣G⁣a⁣i⁣n⁣E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣s⁣ amplify the signal several orders of magnitude before digitization of the p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣e⁣l⁣e⁣c⁣t⁣r⁣o⁣n⁣s⁣. This means even if the measured signal is very low, a large number of electrons will be read. As such, the readout noise will be distinct from the signal in the histogram. This is why readout noise is considered negligible in E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣s⁣.

EMCCD Photon Counting
EMCCD acquisition histogram

Without readout noise, smaller noise sources must be considered with E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣s⁣. D⁣a⁣r⁣k⁣ ⁣c⁣u⁣r⁣r⁣e⁣n⁣t⁣ (i.e. t⁣h⁣e⁣r⁣m⁣a⁣l⁣ ⁣n⁣o⁣i⁣s⁣e⁣) occurs due to the thermal agitation of the sensor and increases linearly with exposure time (characterized in e/pixel/second). The sensor’s temperature is the only parameter that influences d⁣a⁣r⁣k⁣ ⁣c⁣u⁣r⁣r⁣e⁣n⁣t⁣.

As d⁣a⁣r⁣k⁣ ⁣c⁣u⁣r⁣r⁣e⁣n⁣t⁣ is time-dependent and E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣s⁣ are deep cooled (<-50°C), it becomes negligible when using shorter exposures times; which is the norm in p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ acquisitions. The final noise source is clock-induced charges (also known as spurious events), generated by the clock signals used to move charges on the E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ chip. This noise source is fixed per image (e/pixel/frame) and so becomes the dominant noise source in p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣. Reducing clock-induced charges is critical to both linear and p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ imaging.

With E⁣M⁣ ⁣G⁣a⁣i⁣n⁣, the histogram of E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ ⁣d⁣a⁣r⁣k⁣ ⁣f⁣r⁣a⁣m⁣e⁣s⁣ shows a combination of the readout noise Gaussian and a tail created by both the clock-induced charges (C⁣I⁣C⁣) and d⁣a⁣r⁣k⁣ ⁣c⁣u⁣r⁣r⁣e⁣n⁣t⁣. This histogram can be used to compare the performances of different E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ cameras and is at the base of p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ thresholding.

EMCCD Photon Counting
EMCCD dark frame histogram

THRESHOLD SELECTION

With p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣, instead of an image displaying intensity/pixel you obtain a binary image with 0 or 1 in each pixel (0 for no photon and 1 for a photon). This process is what allows to eliminate the excess noise factor, as the exact intensity value of each pixel is no longer important to the measurement; the p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ image only measures whether a pixel was hit by a photon or not.

This technique is not only used in E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣s⁣ but also in e.g. avalanche diodes, X-Ray imaging. To achieve this binary image, an intensity threshold is set and if a pixel’s intensity is under the threshold no photon has hit the pixel whereas if the intensity is over the threshold, the pixel has been hit by a photon. This threshold can be clearly illustrated on a histogram.

EMCCD Photon Counting
How thresholding applies to an EMCCD acquisition histogram.

Correctly establishing the threshold is crucial, as it must be low enough to capture a high number of photons but high enough to avoid registering too many noise events. A standard way to base the choice of a threshold is by using a measure of the standard deviation (σ) of the readout noise’s Gaussian curve. For E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣s⁣, a universally recognized interval of confidence is achieved with a 5σ threshold. As such, there is only a 1 out of 3 million chance that readout noise on a pixel registers as a photon. Advanced users can select their own specific threshold according to their application and signal flux.

Selecting an optimized threshold is crucial to image quality

Selecting an optimized threshold is crucial to image quality. A threshold too low compared to the readout noise standard deviation (σ) detects too much noise whereas a threshold too high cuts off too much signal.

PHOTON COUNTING PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS

Not all p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ (PC) acquisitions are equal, as camera specifications play a key role in the final results. Even though thresholding eliminates the excess noise factor (E⁣N⁣F⁣), if the camera’s performances are insufficient, p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ will never actually lead to a gain in S⁣N⁣R⁣; there will be too much noise and not enough signal above the threshold.

Most E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ detectors on the market are not appropriate for p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ but Nüvü Camēras’ proprietary E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ electronics are designed for high-performance p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣.

HIGHER EM GAIN AND LOWER C⁣I⁣C⁣

Using high E⁣M⁣ ⁣G⁣a⁣i⁣n⁣ is crucial for efficient p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ as E⁣M⁣ ⁣G⁣a⁣i⁣n⁣ increases the intensity of the signal, pushing the signal farther away from the readout noise Gaussian and allowing more photons to be detected above the threshold.

tableau 1011

Left: Photon detection probability increases with higher E⁣M⁣ ⁣G⁣a⁣i⁣n⁣. Right: Image histogram showcasing the effect of higher E⁣M⁣ ⁣G⁣a⁣i⁣n⁣ when using thresholding.

It could be inferred that using the highest E⁣M⁣ ⁣G⁣a⁣i⁣n⁣ possible would be ideal in all cases but higher E⁣M⁣ ⁣G⁣a⁣i⁣n⁣ also increases the clock-induced charges (C⁣I⁣C⁣). Unlike readout noise, this noise source is generated on the detector and is multiplied along with signal p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣e⁣l⁣e⁣c⁣t⁣r⁣o⁣n⁣s⁣. If the C⁣I⁣C⁣ gets too preeminent, the benefits of using higher E⁣M⁣ ⁣G⁣a⁣i⁣n⁣ are cancelled.

Most E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ camera manufacturers will cap their maximum E⁣M⁣ ⁣G⁣a⁣i⁣n⁣ at ~1000, to prevent the user from acquiring images dominated by their higher C⁣I⁣C⁣. However, this E⁣M⁣ ⁣G⁣a⁣i⁣n⁣ is insufficient to use E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ efficiently and will offer minimal to no benefits compared to l⁣i⁣n⁣e⁣a⁣r⁣ ⁣m⁣o⁣d⁣e⁣ (LM) operation even though the E⁣N⁣F⁣ is eliminated. Although p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ (PC) is a powerful acquisition technique, other manufacturers will rarely promote p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ due to these stringent performance requirements.

EMCCD Photon Counting
Impact of noise in a dark frame

Thanks to Nüvü Camēras’ patented technology that significantly reduces C⁣I⁣C⁣, our E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ detectors can operate at an E⁣M⁣ ⁣G⁣a⁣i⁣n⁣ of up to 5000 while keeping C⁣I⁣C⁣ in check allowing unmatched p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ performances. Nüvü’s p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ has remained the choice of the most rigorous E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ users in demanding low light applications.

EMCCD Photon Counting
Signal to noise ratio (SNR) of EMCCD acquisition modes. The linear acquisitions use 1 image/sec and photon counting (PC) acquisitions use 10 images/sec.

CONSIDERING C⁣I⁣C⁣ ACCUMULATION 

Stacking p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ images is very useful to produce a more comprehensive image with a dynamic range and encompassing your dataset. However, C⁣I⁣C⁣ are fixed per image (e/pixel/frame). Each frame added in a stack will also add its own C⁣I⁣C⁣ value. If an image with 50 levels is created, the image contains 50 times the amount of C⁣I⁣C⁣ found in a single image. This consideration makes it even more crucial to have the lowest C⁣I⁣C⁣ possible.

Image stacking with different C⁣I⁣C⁣ levels

ADDITIONAL PHOTON COUNTING RESOURCES

If you are interested in a more in-depth analysis of the mathematics & statistics supporting ⁣P⁣C⁣ with E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ detectors as well as some additional data, there are several articles available for your consultation. Many more general questions are also answered in our E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ FAQ.