2023-10-27
EMCCD Tutorial

​EMCCD Tutorial​

EMCCD Tutorial

WHY CHOOSE AN E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ CAMERA?

Low light imaging takes place in various fields, from the infinitely small to the infinitely large. It can occur while tracking down the molecular dynamics of brain synapses with fluorescent markers or studying the atmosphere of a faraway extrasolar planet through spectroscopy. However, in all circumstances, when photons are scarce, the signal reaching the imaging device may be weak enough to blend with the background noise. A strategy to recover the photon signal is thus much needed.

Electron-multiplying C⁣C⁣D⁣ (E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣) technology, sometimes referred to as low light level C⁣C⁣D⁣ (L3CCD), is designed to beat down the intrinsic electronic noise of the readout process, which is comparable to a signal of a few photons per exposure. In this way, E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ cameras address the challenges of most low light imaging. They also support faster frame acquisition rates than their C⁣C⁣D⁣ counterparts, making them highly suitable for live imaging. Better still, E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ cameras can offer ultimate sensitivity for the observation of the darkest scenes by becoming wide-field real-time p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ imaging devices.

This series of pages has the goal to inform you about the various specificities of E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣s⁣; from noise sources & operation modes to advanced p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ operation.



THE TECHNOLOGY AT THE HEART OF THE E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣

A relative of the charge-coupled device (C⁣C⁣D⁣) technology, the E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ is a frame-transfer C⁣C⁣D⁣ to which is added a special output register. It operates by first transforming incident photons into p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣e⁣l⁣e⁣c⁣t⁣r⁣o⁣n⁣s⁣ in the detector’s light-sensitive region—the imaging region—located within the camera’s cooled enclosure. The sensor’s silicon body is meticulously organized in a matrix of potential wells, or pixels, that trap p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣e⁣l⁣e⁣c⁣t⁣r⁣o⁣n⁣s⁣ as they are created through the photoelectric effect during exposure. Following the collection of these negative charges, the application of a series of voltages across the sensor forces the transfer of all electrons from the imaging to the storage region of the detector. Doing so ensures the processing of the acquired image while performing a new acquisition.

In the storage region, the electrons at the detector’s bottommost row travel pixel by pixel into the multiplication register, which comprises several hundred electrodes. When a p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣e⁣l⁣e⁣c⁣t⁣r⁣o⁣n⁣ encounters an electrode, there is a 1–2% probability that it will generate a secondary electron by impact ionization, a type of avalanche effect. As a result, an incoming signal of a few photons can be amplified up to several thousand times. The charges then reach the output amplifier where they are converted into an electric impulse subsequently digitized to form an image.

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PARAMETERS INFLUENCING THE E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ SENSITIVITY

Compared to other low flux imaging technologies, an E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ shows high quantum efficiency (Q⁣E⁣) and little d⁣a⁣r⁣k⁣ ⁣c⁣u⁣r⁣r⁣e⁣n⁣t⁣, much like traditional C⁣C⁣D⁣s⁣. More, it presents negligible readout noise akin the intensified C⁣C⁣D⁣s⁣ (I⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣), thus providing the best sensitivity in poor lighting conditions. For more information about the various low light imaging cameras available today, refer to our article Pushing Sensitivity to the Brink: Selecting the Right Imaging Technology for Your Application published in Biophotonics.

However, like all imaging technologies, the E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ suffers from thermal and readout noises as well as other electronic-dependant factors that affect its sensitivity. Clock-induced charges (C⁣I⁣C⁣), the prime noise source in E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣, particularly at high readout rates, may contaminate images up to 200 times more than the d⁣a⁣r⁣k⁣ ⁣c⁣u⁣r⁣r⁣e⁣n⁣t⁣ when only a handful of photons reaches the camera sensor.

Listed below are the primary parameters that, when unaddressed, lessen the sensitivity of low light imaging E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ systems, along with the means by which Nüvü Camēras inventively and elegantly overcomes such obstacles.



SENSITIVITY PARAMETERS

  • THERMAL NOISE

    Ideally, an E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ sensor would only detect p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣e⁣l⁣e⁣c⁣t⁣r⁣o⁣n⁣s⁣. However, the mere thermal agitation within the E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ chip is sufficient to eject electrons from the silicon body, which are then collected by the potential wells. Even in total darkness, the wells slowly gather these charges, also referred to as dark electrons, and do so in an increasing amount with prolonged exposure times. It is as if the camera had been exposed to a faint light source.

    The E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ detector is cooled down to temperatures nearing -90 °C to counter such noise, known as either d⁣a⁣r⁣k⁣ ⁣c⁣u⁣r⁣r⁣e⁣n⁣t⁣ or t⁣h⁣e⁣r⁣m⁣a⁣l⁣ ⁣n⁣o⁣i⁣s⁣e⁣. Doing so substantially decreases the number of dark electrons within the chip, hence improving dramatically the p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣e⁣l⁣e⁣c⁣t⁣r⁣o⁣n⁣ signal. Performing acquisitions in the inverted mode of operation (I⁣M⁣O⁣) further reduces the d⁣a⁣r⁣k⁣ ⁣c⁣u⁣r⁣r⁣e⁣n⁣t⁣ contribution. Refer to the Modes of Operation section later in this tutorial for more information.

    Nüvü™ addresses t⁣h⁣e⁣r⁣m⁣a⁣l⁣ ⁣n⁣o⁣i⁣s⁣e⁣ with either liquid nitrogen or a thermoelectric cooling (TEC) unit to absorb the detector’s heat. To that end, Nüvü Camēras has developed a revolutionary camera packaging that can maintain the detector’s temperature at -85 °C with an extraordinary precision of 0.01 °C even when performing fast acquisitions and reading the entire detector frame. Such stability ensures the uniformity of the signal amplification through the electron-multiplying register, as the number of dark electrons remains the same See the E⁣M⁣ ⁣g⁣a⁣i⁣n⁣ subsection for more information.

    Acquisition conditions: Sensor operating temperature of -85 °C; 10 MHz readout speed; em gain of 5,000 for Nüvü Camēras, and 1,000 for other emccdS.

    Acquisition conditions: Sensor operating temperature of -85 °C; 10 MHz readout speed; E⁣M⁣ ⁣g⁣a⁣i⁣n⁣ of 5,000 for Nüvü Camēras, and 1,000 for other E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣s⁣.

  • READOUT NOISE

    Readout noise occurs whenever the charges are amplified and digitized. Negligible in high illumination conditions, as in the order of 2 to 10 electrons, the readout noise becomes comparable to the p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣e⁣l⁣e⁣c⁣t⁣r⁣o⁣n⁣ signal in near-darkness scenes.

    E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ technology includes a charge amplification stage, the electron-multiplying (EM) register, which boosts the p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣e⁣l⁣e⁣c⁣t⁣r⁣o⁣n⁣ signal before digitization. As this stage increases the incoming signal by a factor up to a few thousand, the readout noise becomes negligible.

  • EM GAIN

    The factor associated with the p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣e⁣l⁣e⁣c⁣t⁣r⁣o⁣n⁣ amplification is known as the E⁣M⁣ ⁣g⁣a⁣i⁣n⁣. Boosting the p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣e⁣l⁣e⁣c⁣t⁣r⁣o⁣n⁣ signal, however, comes at a price: the EM registry is a sensitive component that may easily saturate, and saturation may lead to its premature aging or damage.

    Note that the EM registry boosts not only the p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣e⁣l⁣e⁣c⁣t⁣r⁣o⁣n⁣ signal but also dark electrons and clock-induced charges (see the next subsection). Nüvü™ addresses such issue with both the innovative C⁣C⁣D⁣ Controller for Counting Photons (C⁣C⁣C⁣P⁣) and unrivaled cooling performances. The first minimizes the clock-induced charge contribution while the latter cuts down d⁣a⁣r⁣k⁣ ⁣c⁣u⁣r⁣r⁣e⁣n⁣t⁣ levels. Therefore, Nüvü™ is the sole E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ camera manufacturer that offers cameras supporting E⁣M⁣ ⁣g⁣a⁣i⁣n⁣ up to 5000.

    For most applications, Nüvü™ recommends employing EM gains below 1,000 to avoid dynamic range losses. The camera’s dynamic range, defined as the ratio between the full-well electron capacity and the camera overall noise level, declines with increasing EM gains as a result of the charge amplification register capacity. For increased gains, the EM register accepts fewer electrons before saturation due to the amplification of the charges contained in an entire row and not individual pixel charges. But lower gains lead to better dynamic ranges, which refine the image contrast.

    Nevertheless, for applications requiring p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ —further on the E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ page— Nüvü Camēras strongly recommends E⁣M⁣ ⁣g⁣a⁣i⁣n⁣ values of more than 3,000 to optimize the sensitivity and dynamic range.

  • CLOCK-INDUCED CHARGES

    Shifting the p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣e⁣l⁣e⁣c⁣t⁣r⁣o⁣n⁣s⁣ at high readout rates requires the application of both high voltages and high-frequency clocks, the latter signal coordinating the p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣e⁣l⁣e⁣c⁣t⁣r⁣o⁣n⁣s⁣ displacement within the E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ sensor. With greater clock frequencies are associated a supplementary noise source known as the clock-induced charges (C⁣I⁣C⁣).

    Fortunately, Nüvü Camēras innovative and patented C⁣C⁣D⁣ Controller for Counting Photons (C⁣C⁣C⁣P⁣) generates finer and more adjustable clock signals than those produced by other controllers. As such, it drastically limits the creation of C⁣I⁣C⁣ while reading the E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ at high speeds.

  • CHARGE TRANSFER EFFICIENCY

    Some p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣e⁣l⁣e⁣c⁣t⁣r⁣o⁣n⁣s⁣ may be left behind during the charge transfer process, especially at high readout speeds: the electron shifting process from one potential well to the next may be incomplete, thus creating so-called deferred charges in the imaging region. Consequently, the leftover electrons artificially increase the brightness of certain pixels and decrease the overall image quality of the E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ camera.

    Nonetheless, on top of lowering C⁣I⁣C⁣, the C⁣C⁣D⁣ Controller for Counting Photons enhances charge transfer efficiency (C⁣T⁣E⁣), and does so at any operating temperature and readout frequencies, hence leading to images of highly superior quality.

    Acquisition conditions: Sensor operating temperature of -85 °C; 10 MHz readout speed; em gain of 5,000 for Nüvü Camēras, and 1,000 for other emccdS.

    Acquisition conditions: Sensor operating temperature of -85 °C; 10 MHz readout speed; E⁣M⁣ ⁣g⁣a⁣i⁣n⁣ of 5,000 for Nüvü Camēras, and 1,000 for other E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣s⁣.

  • EXCESS NOISE FACTOR

    The avalanche process that boosts the p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣e⁣l⁣e⁣c⁣t⁣r⁣o⁣n⁣ signal before readout is unpredictable in nature: one can only ascertain the mean value of the E⁣M⁣ ⁣g⁣a⁣i⁣n⁣, never its exact value. The signal follows a Poisson probability distribution, as seen in the figure below.

    Electron distribution after the avalanche process in the EM register

    Electron distribution after the avalanche process in the EM register. The output probability distribution is plotted against the output electrons for a value of the E⁣M⁣ ⁣g⁣a⁣i⁣n⁣ of 3,000. The n values correspond to the number of electrons in a pixel before traveling through the EM register.

    Uncertainties arise when attempting to determine the exact number of electrons that contributed to the signal before amplification: as shown above, the electron distributions overlap considerably despite the number of electrons n, thus making it impossible to ascertain how many electrons entered the EM register first. Such ambiguity results in the contamination of E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣-acquired images by the excess noise factor (E⁣N⁣F⁣), which has a √2 value at high E⁣M⁣ ⁣g⁣a⁣i⁣n⁣. This stochastic noise source, noticeable in low light conditions, affects an image’s signal-to-noise ratio (S⁣N⁣R⁣) as if the sensor’s quantum efficiency was cut in half.

    Performing p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ measurements eliminates the E⁣N⁣F⁣ by assessing the number of p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣e⁣l⁣e⁣c⁣t⁣r⁣o⁣n⁣s⁣ per pixel and attributing to each a value of 1 or 0. The charge amplification registry, therefore, cannot change the pixels’ output and thus not alter their values with the electron-multiplication associated uncertainty. Further explanations are provided in the Photon Counting section.

E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ OPERATIONS

Gathering data with an E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ camera can be performed in several manners: it includes two different digitizers, one with the electron-multiplication register and one without.

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NÜVÜ SUPPORTS ALL OPERATING MODES BELOW

  • CONVENTIONAL MODE

    The conventional mode is carried out as if the E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ was a C⁣C⁣D⁣ detector: p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣e⁣l⁣e⁣c⁣t⁣r⁣o⁣n⁣s⁣ are read out pixel per pixel without additional amplification. Such mode is ideal for bright conditions where the overall noise is negligible compared to the input signal.

  • EM MODE

    The electron-multiplying (EM) mode ensures that the p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣e⁣l⁣e⁣c⁣t⁣r⁣o⁣n⁣ signal is amplified through the EM register before digitization to counteract the readout noise. Such digitizer is preferred for low light imaging where fewer photons are detected. In similar conditions, the conventional mode would yield a readout noise as high or greater than the input signal!

  • PROCESSING OPERATIONS

    Each digitizer includes a subset of processing operations. In l⁣i⁣n⁣e⁣a⁣r⁣ ⁣m⁣o⁣d⁣e⁣ (LM), each of the pixel’s intensity reflects the number of photons collected during an exposure. This mode also comprises an image correction option, the bias, which consists of a series of closed-shutter frames that are combined, and then subtracted from the image, to discard camera-related artifacts. The LM mode supports both conventional and EM linear acquisitions.

    Another interesting processing mode is time-delay integration (T⁣D⁣I⁣) which allows to image fast-moving objects with long exposures and without any blurring. This mode is available both with conventional (C⁣C⁣D⁣) and EM amplifiers. More information available in our E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ FAQ.

    Nüvü™ also offers a p⁣h⁣o⁣t⁣o⁣n⁣ ⁣c⁣o⁣u⁣n⁣t⁣i⁣n⁣g⁣ (PC) mode for extreme low-light applications, which exclusively operates in EM mode.

MODES OF OPERATION: THEIR STRONG EFFECT ON OVERALL NOISE

Adopting the proper mode of operation of the detector also enhances an E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ camera performance.

The inverted mode of operation (I⁣M⁣O⁣) generates a population of holes—the absence of electrons—within the sensor’s silicon substrate. Holes then recombine with dark electrons generated by thermal agitation before readout. As a result, I⁣M⁣O⁣ significantly decreases the T⁣h⁣e⁣r⁣m⁣a⁣l⁣ ⁣n⁣o⁣i⁣s⁣e⁣ and is perfectly suited for long acquisitions. However, its trade-off is that the moving holes lead to increasing levels of C⁣I⁣C⁣ while electrons shift toward the readout register. By opposition, the non-inverted mode of operation (N⁣I⁣M⁣O⁣) does not induce a population of holes and yields less C⁣I⁣C⁣; it is ideal for short acquisitions where d⁣a⁣r⁣k⁣ ⁣c⁣u⁣r⁣r⁣e⁣n⁣t⁣ cannot build up.

Nevertheless, finely tuning E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ controller signals leads to a significant drop of C⁣I⁣C⁣ in the inverted mode of operation. Such is the ability of Nüvü™’s state-of-the-art and patented C⁣C⁣D⁣ Controller for Counting Photons (C⁣C⁣C⁣P⁣), exclusively running in I⁣M⁣O⁣. Integrated into all Nüvü™ products, C⁣C⁣C⁣P⁣ allows a user to perform both short and long acquisitions at fast readout speeds for exquisite images with outstanding SNRs.

It is worth noting that I⁣M⁣O⁣ and N⁣I⁣M⁣O⁣ modes are mutually exclusive, and one may lead to better specifications than the other. At Nüvü Camēras, all specification data are acquired in I⁣M⁣O⁣ whereas other E⁣M⁣C⁣C⁣D⁣ camera manufacturers may provide C⁣I⁣C⁣ in N⁣I⁣M⁣O⁣ and d⁣a⁣r⁣k⁣ ⁣c⁣u⁣r⁣r⁣e⁣n⁣t⁣ levels in I⁣M⁣O⁣. Given that both modes are mutually exclusive, the resulting overall noise measured in the lab may be greater than expected when using these manufacturers’ cameras.